In discussing who the 12 Tribes of Israel were, we must first start with the Old Testament account of the man Jacob, a twin scorned by his brother Esau and father Isaac, yet loved by his mother Rebekkah and by God (see Genesis 25:19-34). In those days, inheritances fell only to the oldest son. Jacob was what you would consider unathletic and sensitive, and clean-shaven. Literally his name meant "he grasps the heel" because that was exactly what he did as his mother gave birth to both sons. His elder brother Esau (or Edom, depending on the translation) was the hunter, the adventurer, and their father’s favorite. Interestingly enough, both versions of his name mean separate traits that described him: Esau "hairy", Edom "red".
One day, Jacob seized an opportunity to redeem himself. When Esau had come back home from hunting, he was famished. Jacob used that weakness to make Esau give up his birthright to him in exchange for food. Eventually their father was on his death bed, with failed eyesight. He requested that Esau cook a meal for him so that he could earn a blessing. Rebekkah overheard their conversation, and determined that Jacob should instead take his brother’s place by disguising himself so as to receive a blessing. Everything went according to plan - Jacob received his father’s blessing of prosperity and leadership. When Esau heard of this, his anger was more than a little kindled, so Jacob made haste and fled from his homeland. His journey marked the beginning of a special relationship with the Lord, who led him to his uncle’s home. He fell in love with his cousin Rachel, yet was himself duped into marrying her elder sister Leah, since it was customary for the oldest child to marry before the younger.
The 12 Sons of Jacob
Leah gave birth to Jacob’s first sons - Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. Rachel was barren and jealous of her sister’s abundance, so she gave Jacob her maidservant, who conceived Dan and Naphtali. Keeping in competition, Leah then did the same with her own maidservant, in a further attempt to produce more children by her, which resulted in the additions of Gad and Asher. Leah bore Issachar and Zebulun (and also the only daughter, Dinah). Only then did Rachel finally conceive the beloved Joseph.
The day came when Jacob was given word that his brother Esau was in the area. Terrified of the conflict he was sure would ensue, he made an altar to the Lord and was visited by God himself. He received a special blessing that his descendants would be kings (see Genesis 35:11) and was given the new name of Israel "he struggles with God". The reunion with Esau turns out to be favorable; their relationship is restored. Rachel eventually dies in childbirth some years later, leaving behind a grief-stricken Israel and the new baby Benjamin.
The 12 Tribes of Israel Instituted
Rachel’s son Joseph was special - Israel favored him among his brothers, much to their derision. Once they heard Joseph mention a couple of dreams where it seemed to indicate they would bow down to him one day, they determined to kill the young man. Only, at the last minute they sold him to traders. He ended up in Egypt, thrown into prison for a crime he didn’t commit, until the day came when he was promoted to second in command to Pharaoh. After seven years, there was a famine in the land, and his brothers traveled to Egypt for food. Joseph punishes his brothers in a series of events, then surprises them with who he is. The entire family moves to Egypt to be near Joseph, and upon Israel’s death bed, he blesses all of his sons. And then it says in Genesis 49:28 "All these are the twelve tribes of Israel."
The next time the Bible mentions these 12 tribes is when Moses built an altar to God with pillars denoting each tribe (Exodus 24:4), followed by incorporating them as 12 stones on the High Priests’ garments (see Exodus 28:9-10 and 39:14). There is a census taken in the first chapter of Numbers, broken down by the same 12 tribes. In the New Testament, Jesus references them as being judged by those who follow Him (Matthew 19:28), while John the Revelator concludes that the new Kingdom on Earth will have "144,000 from the twelve tribes of Israel" (Revelation 7:4) and the gates have each tribe’s name written on them (Revelation 21:12).
